Interwoven Worlds of Migration:

The Mediterranean migration route is notorious for being the "world's deadliest."¹. It refers to the route that migrants take when coming from the African continent and the Middle East journey in their escape from war, persecution, or economic hardships to reach Europe. The current and ongoing crisis in the central Mediterranean remains a critical focal point for humanitarian concerns. In the past decade, the Syrian conflict has resulted in the world's largest and still ongoing refugee crisis.². Most recently, the eruption of conflict and devastating violence in Sudan, the dire socioeconomic conditions in South Sudan, the human rights violations in Eritrea, and the coups that have taken place in several Sahelian countries have collectively resulted in mass regional displacement.³. War, economic inequalities, deteriorating security, fragile States, as well as drastic shifts related to climate change have devastated people's living conditions across many countries, pushing people to the point where they are willing to cross the treacherous Mediterranean Sea to reach safety.

The journey towards Europe, often from the North African shores of Libya or Tunisia as well as the Turkish coast, unfolds over several days. Migrants are packed shoulder to shoulder in dangerously overloaded and unseaworthy inflatable dinghies or wooden fishing boats. While it is difficult to pinpoint the exact figure of migrant deaths due to the challenges of accurately documenting migration flows across vast continents, it is estimated that over 20,000 people have drowned or are lost since 2014⁴. Yet, despite the dangers entailed, the number of migrants continues to rise every year – as does the number of deaths.  

In light of the rise of the migrant movement, European governments’ response has been to increase border control efforts, which included the implementation of various deterrents such as: patrolling, surveillance, detection, and interception of illegal vessels through Frontex⁵ (the European Border and Cost Guard Agency), as well as bilateral agreements with transit and origin countries (e.g., the EU-Turkey Deal ⁶) in order to curb the flow of irregular migration.

The increased securitization of the Mediterranean basin (through surveillance, patrols, and drones) means that sea rescue efforts have become secondary to border control⁷. In the past few years, European member states and the EU have offloaded migration management to countries such as Libya despite the fragility of the country’s institutions⁸. In Libya, for instance, the post-Gaddafi conditions of instability since 2011, such as the lack of a functional government, civil unrest, proliferation of militias, and increased armed infighting, have created an environment where the exploitation and trafficking of vulnerable migrants flourishes⁹. However, the collaboration between the EU border control and the Libyan forces continues unabated despite reports of arbitrary detention, exploitation, and torture of refugees or migrants when they are returned to Libya¹⁰.

While the ongoing issue of migration and its rich history along the Mediterranean route is not new, examining the historical and current conditions of displacement opens up a new set of questions surrounding forced migration, borders, and enduring colonial legacies. However, much of our experiences of these events – if we get exposed to them – are mediated through our screens to be lost amongst the other deluge of ‘content’. Regardless, the images and reels we do see (of capsized vessels, groups of people packed together on rickety boats, bodies washing up on the shores) all fall short of providing a comprehensive understanding of the complexities surrounding irregular migration patterns. They can, in fact, at times, have the opposite effect of showcasing nuance by oversimplifying a multi-layered historical phenomenon and, in the process, diminishing the rich array of contexts from which the images emerge¹¹.

What is often missing from such images, and what this article aims to clarify, are the historical links, ruptures, and contradictions entangled in the process of sea migration – or what is described as Harraga. Harraga becomes a channel for us to explore the enduring impact of colonial and postcolonial relations. In other words, it allows us to investigate how the European exploitation of other cultures for over 400 years continues to affect the once-colonized cultures and societies, particularly concerning contemporary migration.

Harragas story of colonial and postcolonial relations:

Harraga is an Arabic word meaning ‘to burn’ and can be translated as ‘those who burn’ or ‘burners’ of the sea¹². The term is often used to describe the activity of moving from the Maghreb to Europe via the Mediterranean without the documentation or bureaucracy of border crossing. On the one hand, it denotes individuals who burn their identification documents to evade repatriation, while metaphorically, it signifies those who "burn the sea," akin to 'burning one's bridges’¹³. Harraga transcends its linguistic definition and becomes a powerful lens through which we can comprehend the multifaceted nature of migration from the Maghreb to Europe. It not only represents the group of people labeled as “illegal migrants," but it also encapsulates an act of defiance against the rigid structures of border regulations and visa systems

As articulated by M’charek, engaging in harraga characterizes those who challenge these barriers by metaphorically "burning" through borders to access European territories¹⁴. M’charek unfolds the notion of harraga into several layers: she insists that harraga must be understood primarily as an activity “that interferes with imagined relations between states and individuals”¹⁵ and not as an identity. This is because to engage in harraga requires preparation labor, the calling upon one's networks, and accumulating enough money for the crossing¹⁶. Harraga prioritizes the cultivation of connections and the expansion of living space, “it is about making movement possible rather than being stuck, buried alive in a dead end”¹⁷. It is also about colonial extractions that remain underway. In this case, M’charek uses an example from Tunisia by elaborating on unequal flows, such as salt being exported to France with little return as part of a “formal, free economic trade,” while the flow of people seeking life is always “cast as a problem”¹⁸. Harragas emphasize the “dead bodies at Europe’s borders,” as well as the increased securitization generated in response. Finally, harraga "brings the realities of the dead and the living together" and "calls into question what is litter and who is disposable."¹⁹

To begin grasping the concept of harraga, we must embrace a holistic and dynamic perspective that considers time, place, and history as interconnected elements. The past and the present are inseparable in many respects, especially since the historical legacies of colonialism, slavery, and violence continue to shape our contemporary migration dynamics²⁰. Folded into the narrative of harraga are stories of displacement, resilience, and the persistent struggle for agency in a world where borders and bureaucracy often perpetuate inequality and exclusion. In that way, harraga is a story of colonial and postcolonial relations²¹.

In this article, we will focus on the narrative as it unfolds against a significant historical moment in the region: the arrival of the French in Algeria. Approximately five hundred French ships headed from Toulon to Algiers, the capital of the Ottoman Regency of Algiers, and on July 5, 1830, Algiers was officially captured and colonized by the French. This pivotal event laid the foundation for the processes that made decades-long French colonial rule possible. Simultaneously, it led to what became one of the most influential and recognized anti-colonial movements in the global south. The invasions via the sea facilitated a swift and violent occupation, marking the initiation of a period of significant transformations, contradictions, and anti-colonial movements in Algeria²².

The arrival of the French via sea underscored the French government's colonial aspirations and expansionist motives. The French occupied Algeria for 132 years, and it took eight years of brutal conflict, from 1954 to 1962, for Algerian independence to be realized. However, colonial relations continued to mold the interactions between the two countries over the next several decades. What came after was less of a clean separation and more of a prolonged shift and transformation for both nations. This made the Algerian-French postcolonial condition unique: paradoxes characterized its relationship along the lines of "confrontation yet cooperation, [and] independence with dependence."²³; however, it was also marked by its clear imbalance in power.

This unequal relationship has intertwined the nations of Algeria and France. It is manifested through the continuities between coloniality, that is, the enduring structures of colonialism, and the present political and economic relations between the two states. France continues to have strong economic ties with Algeria, as is evident in areas such as trade and energy. Indeed, this is true for much of the EU, particularly in relation to broader trade relations with Algeria. The focus of much of the globalization efforts of the 1990s in Algeria had been on the liberalization of its economy, which ultimately led to an economic model that primarily benefited the EU at the expense of the Algerian economy²⁴. As it stands, Algeria’s petroleum resources continue to be ‘excessively exploited’ with little in return in terms of “assistance provided for the modernization and diversification of Algeria’s economy, [which confirms] Algeria’s ongoing dependence on the EU’s will.”²⁵

Another significant aspect of the asymmetrical relationship is the presence of a large Algerian diaspora in France, with over 1.5 million Algerian immigrants currently residing in France, thus making it one of the largest immigrant communities in the country²⁶. The migration from Algeria to France had taken place over the duration of several decades as a result of major national and global events and transformations: in the wake of World War II, France required labor for the reconstruction efforts, so it encouraged immigration from the colonies, including Algeria; the Algerian War of Independence also led to the displacement of Algerians who fled or migrated to France; the post independence period saw significant political and economic upheavals leading many Algerians to seek better opportunities in France; then, in the 1970s, family reunification policies resulted in Algerians bringing their families to France; the turmoil and political shifts in Algeria during the late 1980s and 1990s further escalated migratory movement; the time between 1992-2002, labeled as the Black Decade, was a time of extreme civil strife and political upheaval, during which armed Islamist groups emerged, and the nation became embroiled in a violent conflict between the government forces and the Islamist factions. As a result of these consecutive epochs of drastic changes and political shifts, a great number of Algerians have sought out immigration as a means to secure stability in their lives. Many Algerian and/or French citizens of Algerian descent now reside in France’s poor suburbs (banlieues), where they face significant social and economic challenges, including issues related to high unemployment rates, poverty, and, in some instances, rising social tensions²⁷.

Drawing upon the notion of ‘historical stuttering’, which Esposito borrows from Moroccan journalist and activist, Driss Ksikes, allows us to reflect upon the enduring legacy of French colonialism and its impact on the North Africa-Europe relationship²⁸. The concept of 'historical stuttering' refers to the persistence of historical traces and echoes, or as Ksikes writes: “le comble est que, fatalement, chaque jour, l’histoire bégaie,” (Inevitably, to cap it all, history stutters on a daily basis)²⁹. Ksikes is highlighting what he terms 'historical stuttering' as a way to illustrate how history is marked by violence, fractures, and silences³⁰.

In this context, 'silences' refer to the omissions, exclusions, and overlooked narratives within historical accounts, where critical events or experiences are left untold or marginalized. While 'stutters' represent the disruptions and discontinuities in historical narratives, highlighting moments of turmoil, conflict, or rupture that challenge the smooth, linear progression often associated with historical storytelling. Together, 'silences' and 'stutters' illustrate how history is far from a straightforward and complete record, and they emphasize the significance of addressing these gaps and disturbances for a more accurate understanding of the past and the present.

Kadir Attia’s work:

Artist Kader Attia, born in France to Algerian parents in 1970 and brought up in the Parisian banlieues (suburbs), offers us a perspective that goes against the grain of totalizing narratives³¹. His art grapples with and exposes the fractures and silences of history. He confronts issues of irregular migration by being politically and artistically committed to revisiting the history of colonialism, postcolonial relations, and the living conditions embedded in both.

Attia’s art explores and encompasses multiple mediums and overlapping techniques, ranging from photography and installations to sculptures and paintings³². Attia grapples and explores the chilling reality of sea crossings through this diverse artistic approach. However, his work transcends mere documentation of the physical act of migration. It delves deeper into the complex issues that prompt people to undertake these dangerous journeys and simultaneously examines the intricate emotional, physical, and psychological experiences that accompany their lives in new, often difficult, environments.

Central to Attia's artistic vision is the idea of exile, a concept that he represents as both a geographical and a psychological phenomenon. By intertwining these two dimensions, Attia sheds light on the intricate web of emotions and experiences that shape the lives of migrants. Geographically, exile represents the physical displacement of individuals from their homelands, a theme deeply rooted in the context of forced migration. However, his work goes beyond this spatial aspect and explores exile as a psychological state. He probes the emotional turmoil, identity crises, and feelings of detachment and displacement that migrants grapple with as they navigate the complexities of their new surroundings while still possessing ties and responsibilities in their homeland.

Attia delves into the historical backdrop of colonialism, elucidating how the legacy of past colonial powers echoes through time and continues to shape the conditions from which irregular migration emerges today. More closely, his art confronts and critiques the gaps and silences within contemporary historical narratives of the Mediterranean and, in the process, pulls out the temporal entanglements between our perception of the present and its connection to the imperial past³³. His work explores re-appropriation and notions of repair to interrupt and complicate histories that have not been examined from the perspectives of the colonized and the dispossessed³⁴. 

Living between interlocked worlds grants Attia a worldview rooted in the awareness of the continuities of colonial violence and its impacts on both Western and postcolonial societies. However, what sets his artistic expression apart is its embodiment of a postcolonial essence, rooted not solely in his personal history but also in his position as an inheritor of what can be termed confrontational modernism. In the context of Attia’s work, confrontational modernism refers to an artistic approach that deliberately challenges and critiques established norms, conventions, and power structures. It is a form of modernism that does not seek to conform to or merely represent the paradigms often embedded in Western art theories. Instead, it actively confronts and disrupts the status quo.

In 2006, Attia created the installation "Holy Land" on Fuerteventura in the Canary Islands, which has historically been a place of emigration. It consisted of 45 large mirror arches facing the sea, which, as critics have noted, resemble traditional tombstones from North Africa³⁵. The artwork pays tribute to the lives lost during the North Africa to Europe crossings and comments on the desire to immigrate. “The mirrors blend sameness and difference,” challenging viewers to confront their “assumptions and associations”³⁶. This work is an example of how Attia contemplates migration and pushes viewers to consider their own position and the disappearance of what once was, thus encouraging awareness of tensions and their invisible subjects³⁷.

Figure 1. Kader Attia, Holy Lands , 2006, Kader Attia Official Website ³⁸.

Rather than seeking to convey or represent (often embedded in theories of Western art), his art serves to disrupt and re-imagine the environment that dictates what can be perceived, articulated, and navigated³⁹. Through his various installations and artwork, Attia makes visible the networks of interconnected dependencies that extend from the colonial past. These works suggest what has been inherited by our present, mainly through Attia’s ability to map out the conditions that mold our contemporary global existence. Central to explorations of re-imagining histories is his practice of re-appropriation to help produce an alternative history through visuals.

Harragas as Re-appropriation:

Attia’s most striking work of re-appropriation is his Harragas, 2009 (les Damnes de la mer), an inkjet on canvas, part of the DAF collection, where he revisits French painter Theodore Gericault's most significant art piece, Le Radeau de la Meduse, 1818-19. The original oil on canvas painting by Gericault was an imagined outcome of the French naval shipwreck that took place off the coast of West Africa in 1816, where the captain had left the crew and passengers to die. It is estimated that 147 people were drifting on a constructed raft for 13 days, where about 15 of the men died. Those who survived had experienced starvation and dehydration and had partaken in cannibalism. This painting was a political commentary on a controversial moment in France’s history. It represented an instance that left the French monarchy scrambling to cover up the incident so as not to seem incompetent. The men in the painting are depicted as desperate, exhausted, and grasping for life. Attia’s piece re-appropriates La Meduse and gives it new life and meaning.

From afar, Attia’s image of La Meduse gives the impression of a pixelated television screen, a continuation of a recurrent theme in his art (e.g., Parabolic Self Poetry), which he attributes to growing up watching television⁴⁰. In this re-appropriation, Attia uses tiny newspaper photographs of undocumented people who have risked their lives making the journey on boats. These pictures are then superimposed upon Gericault's painting to construct the mosaic. The closer one looks at the piece, the more visible the small photographs become, some of which are repeated within the entire piece to give off the impression of a pixelated screen.

Seen up close, the images create a distinct sense of lack of order: there is no dominant colour or a specific distinct pattern for the fragmentations of the mosaic of pictures⁴¹. It is only when seen from afar that the miniature pictures recede away from perception, much like how the deluge of images of migrants crossing the sea recedes from the viewer's focus and attention. At that point, layered above the muted dynamism that characterized the original painting, the peppered pictures display a rhythm of red and blue spots as though overlaying a static television screen while retaining a sense of the original.

The re-interpretation of La Meduse brings together the past and the present, with the colonial voyage and the present-day harragas imposed upon each other, making it difficult to see where one begins and the other ends. As described by Esposito: “Today’s harragas are inseparable from other agents in other times; they are linked, for instance, to Louis XVIII’s colonizing subjects during a period which was about to set off an unprecedented expansionist politics,”⁴².

They help emphasize the importance of the colonial period and its devastating impacts on African nations and their people. In making this connection between the past and the present, Attia approaches history and attending political claims in a non-linear manner to showcase the messiness and the contradictions that lie at the center⁴³.

Figure 2. Kader Attia, Harragas , 2009, courtesy of DAF Beirut ⁴⁴.

Attia has referred to harragas as the wretched of the sea⁴⁵ – playing on Franz Fanon’s seminal work entitled The Wretched of the Earth⁴⁶, which delves into the psychological trauma experienced by colonized populations and the surrounding conditions of violence, particularly in Africa, due to the loss of their land and the rupture of their connection to it. Attia’s nod to Fanon’s work invites viewers into Fanon’s interdisciplinary inquiry (encompassing fields such as psychology, sociology, architecture, politics, and ethnology) while using notions of re-appropriation in navigating historical narratives.

Embedded in this dynamic inquiry reflects in his work, allowing Attia to bring together complex experiences that have material and psychological impacts on peoples and communities. This comes to life in Harragas, where the collection of photographs that make up the painting brings together a visual of collective experiences and memories that have impacted communities psychologically and materially. In the process, it makes explicit the connections of how the enduring legacy of colonialism, including the suppression of indigenous cultures and the exploitation of resources, contributed to the socioeconomic challenges and political instability that drive many Algerians and North Africans to undertake the perilous journeys of irregular migration.

By choosing to revisit a painting like Géricault’s and bring it back to life through a different shape, Attia pushes the viewer to consider the notion of repair: “According to Attia, for repair to be contemplated or effective, the fracture must remain visible,”⁴⁷. The concept of "repair" re-emerges in Attia’s other works and assumes a dualistic significance: it can mean the repairing of bodies, of histories, of notions of time while also engaging with questions of transformation and responsibility⁴⁸. His installation entitled The Repair from Occident to Extra-Occidental Culture is one iteration of his philosophical representation of the concept of repair. The installations displayed hundreds of objects, including old photographs, African masks, newspapers, and objects constructed by soldiers during World War I⁴⁹. Attia paired images of soldiers who were physically treated with plastic surgery with African masks that showcased signs of physical repair. The ways in which he juxtaposes Western ideas with non-Western objects, re-centering African communities’ idea of healing and repair, acknowledges their silenced histories and complicates notions of time.

Figure 3. Kader Attia, The Repair from Occident to Extra-Occidental Culture >, 2012, ⁵⁰.

From The Repair from Occident to Extra-Occidental Culture (2012) ⁵¹

Attia provides a distinct perspective that contrasts the colonial concept of evolution. In colonial thinking, the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized is rooted in the notion of 'civilization,' where colonial powers aim to reshape the 'other' to elevate them to the status of full humanity. This dynamic often presents itself with a facade of moral and theological justifications within colonial missions. In these missions, indigenous communities are subjected to a transformative process ostensibly designed to guide them into the realm of civilization or 'adulthood.' Colonialism often cloaks its actions in the guise of moral and ethical up-liftment, claiming to bring progress to the colonized peoples.

Attia’s perspective challenges the aforementioned colonial narrative by offering an alternative lens through which to view colonialism's historical and contemporary consequences and its impact on the identities, cultures, and experiences of colonized communities. He offers a nuanced perspective on time that diverges from the colonial notion of a linear progression from a fixed origin to a definite endpoint. Instead, he presents time as a dynamic sequence of changes, combinations, and new arrangements. In Attia's art, events and elements come together, diverge, and intersect continuously and fluidly. This perspective does not adhere to the idea of a fixed starting point or an ultimate destination.

Attia's concept of time represents a continuous flow, akin to an in-between state where various elements are constantly evolving while simultaneously expressing their unique differences. This outlook challenges the colonial perspective that often ties the significance of actions and events to their proximity or distance from a presumed starting point or end goal. Here, the importance of actions and events is not contingent on their alignment with a predefined narrative of progress or civilization. Instead, he emphasizes the significance of each moment and the interactions between various elements, recognizing the complexity and diversity inherent in the ongoing change process. This perspective invites a more inclusive understanding of history, where events and actions are valued for their contributions to the ever-evolving tapestry of human experiences, rather than being judged solely by their proximity to a predetermined destination.

Attia's re-appropriation of La Medusa into the Harraga exemplifies the recurrent themes and issues his work often confronts: the lack of an actual post in the postcolonial state of affairs. This is why his work aims to confront the viewers with the human conditions of being mired within the postcolonial by materializing the 'historical stutters' so they are tangible. As M’charek noted, the harraga "intervenes in the separation between the dead and the living."⁵². In tandem, Attia’s work brings to the forefront the perpetual ‘silence’ of former colonizers in the face of the legacy of their past empires and demands acknowledgment.

Edited by Wafa Roz

Notes:

¹ "Mediterranean Crisis," Human Rights Watch, accessed December 9, 2023, https://www.hrw.org/tag/mediterranean-crisis.
² “Syria Emergency,” UNHCR, accessed January 15, 2024, https://www.unhcr.org/us/.
³ "Western and Central Mediterranean Situation," UNHCR Global Focus, https://reporting.unhcr.org.
⁴ "Migration Within the Mediterranean," International Organization for Migration, accessed December 10, 2023, https://missingmigrants.iom.in.
⁵ Frontex: European Border and Coast Guard Agency, accessed January 15, 2024. https://www.frontex.europa.eu/.
⁶ "What Is the EU-Turkey Deal?" International Rescue Committee, last modified March 16, 2023, https://www.rescue.org/eu/article.
⁷ Judith Sunderland, "Endless Tragedies in the Mediterranean Sea: Europe’s Commitment to Rescue Would Save Lives," Human Rights Watch, 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/.
⁸ Eugenio Cusumano and Marianne Riddervold, "Failing through: European migration governance across the central Mediterranean," Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49, no. 12 (2023): 3024.
⁹ Lauren Burke and Erol Yayboke, "Addressing Fragility in Libya Means Protecting Migrant Rights," Commentary, Center for Strategic and International Studies, February 27, 2023, https://www.csis.org/analysis
 ¹⁰ “EU: Frontex’s Lack of Transparency on Libyan Cooperation to Be Heard in Court,” Amnesty International, October 11, 2023, https://www.amnesty.org
 ¹¹ Claudia Esposito, "Voids, Rifts and Straits: Kader Attia’s Mediterranean Histories," Journal of Mediterranean Studies 26, no. 1 (2017): 7-21,
muse.jhu.edu/article, 7-8.
¹² Esposito, 20.
¹³ Esposito, 20.
¹⁴ Amade M’charek, "Harraga: Burning borders, navigating colonialism," The Sociological Review 68, no. 2 (2020): 418-434, https://doi.org.
¹⁵ M’Charek, 429.
¹⁶ M’Charek, 429.
¹⁷ M’Charek, 429.
¹⁸ M’Charek, 429.
¹⁹ M’Charek, 430.
²⁰ Anna Agathangelou and Kyle Killian, eds., Time, Temporality and Violence in International Relations: (De)fatalizing the Present, Forging Radical Alternatives (Routledge, 2016).
²¹ Anna Agathangelou and Kyle Killian, "Time, Temporality and Violence," 419.
²² John R. McDougall, A History of Algeria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
²³ Phillip C. Naylor, "France and Algeria," in A History of Decolonization and Transformation (Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida, 2000), 253.
²⁴ Yahia Mohamed Lamine Mestek, "Algerian-European Relations: Between Partnership and Servitude," Manara Magazine, March 16, 2021, https://manaramagazine.org.
²⁵ Mestek, conclusion.
²⁶ Mohammed Ouhemmou, "Tense Neighbors, Algeria and Morocco Have Divergent Migration Histories," Migration Policy Institute, May 18, 2023, https://www.migrationpolicy.org.
²⁷ Jim House, "The Colonial and Postcolonial Dimensions of Algerian Migration to France," History in Focus (accessed January 8, 2024), https://archives.history.ac.uk.
²⁸ Esposito, “Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 8.
²⁹ Driss Ksikes, Un mur, deux mers, in Tanger, ville frontière (Paris: Actes Sud, 2008), cited in Claudia Esposito, "Voids, Rifts and Straits: Kader Attia’s Mediterranean Histories," Journal of Mediterranean Studies 26, no. 1 (2018): 7-21, 8.
³⁰ Esposito, "Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 8.
³¹ Esposito, "Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 8.
³² Esposito, "Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 8.
³³ Kobena Mercer, "After-Flow: Kader Attia’s Postcolonial Topologies," Kader Attia, 2015, http://kaderattia.de/.
³⁴ Esposito, “Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 14.
³⁴ Kobena Mercer, "After-Flow: Kader Attia’s Postcolonial Topologies," Kader Attia, 2015, http://kaderattia.de/.
³⁵ Esposito, "Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 10.
³⁶ Esposito, “Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 16.
³⁷ Esposito, “Voids, Rifts and Straits”,14.
³⁸ Kader Attia, “Holy Lands.” Kader Attia, 2006, http://kaderattia.de/.
³⁹ Kobena Mercer, "After-Flow: Kader Attia’s Postcolonial Topologies," Kader Attia, 2015, http://kaderattia.de.
⁴⁰ Esposito, "Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 10.
⁴¹ Esposito, “Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 16.
⁴² Esposito, "Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 17.
⁴³ Esposito, “Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 17.
⁴⁴ Kader Attia, “Harragas”, 2009, Inkjet on canvas, 206 cm x 300 cm x 3 cm, Dalloul Art Foundation, Beirut. https://dafbeirut.org/en
⁴⁵ Esposito, “Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 16.
⁴⁶ Franz Fanon is a Martinican psychiatrist, philosopher, and revolutionary theoretician. His work extensively examines the effects of colonialism, race, and violence on both the colonized and the colonizers, materially and psychologically, particularly in Algeria, where he resided and treated colonial prisoners.
⁴⁷ Esposito, "Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 18.
⁴⁸ Esposito, “Voids, Rifts and Straits”, 19.
⁴⁹ Kader Attia, "The Repair from Occident to Extra-Occidental Cultures," 2012, Kader Attia,http://kaderattia.de/.
⁵⁰ Kader Attia, "The Repair from Occident to Extra-Occidental Cultures," 2012, Kader Attia, http://kaderattia.de/.
⁵¹ Kader Attia, "The Repair from Occident to Extra-Occidental Cultures," 2012, Kader Attia, http://kaderattia.de/.
⁵² M’charek, "Harraga: Burning borders, navigating colonialism," 430.

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